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Bibliography Examples, Definition and Types Made Simple

A bibliography is an alphabetized list of all the sources used in an academic paper. You should compile a bibliography when writing an essay, article or research paper that relies heavily on source material. Learning how to write a bibliography with different types of sources may seem tricky, but when you see examples of each type, it’s easier than you think.

How To Write a Bibliography

So what is a bibliography — and what do you need to include? There are nine core elements to create bibliography entries, each with specific punctuation. They include (with their punctuation):

When written in a bibliography, it looks like this:

Author Last Name, Author First Name. “Title of Source.” Title of Container, edited by Other Contributors, Version, Number, Publisher, Publication Date, Location.

If you don’t have every element in your source, choose the ones you have and include them in the citation. For example:

Author Last Name, Author First Name. Title of Container, Publisher, Publication date, Location.

Bibliography Examples for Books

When quoting a book, the book itself is the title of the container. For example:

Smith, John Jacob Jingleheimer. Wu Xia and the Art of Scooter Maintenance, Springer, 2003.

Should the source have more than one author, your citation should appear as follows:

Smith, John Jacob Jingleheimer, and Cindy Lu. Wu Xia and the Art of Scooter Maintenance, Springer, 2003.

If there are more than two authors for your source, add et al. (a Latin abbreviation meaning “and others.”)

Smith, John Jacob Jingleheimer et al. Wu Xia and the Art of Scooter Maintenance , Springer, 2003.

Bibliography Examples for Newspaper and Magazine Articles

For newspapers and magazines, you should include the author, the article title (in quotation marks), the title of the newspaper or publication (in italics), the date of publication, and the page numbers from which the information was gathered.

Doe, John. "How Do You Measure a Year in the Life?" The Sun Times . 2 July 2010: 1-3.

Occasionally, you will come across a source without a listed author. This is especially common when citing newspaper articles and online articles. When this happens, you should simply move to the next step of your citation.

"Review: Wu Xia and the Art of Scooter Maintenance." Arts Review. 8 October 2003.

Bibliography Examples for Online Resources

When you are citing an online source, do your best to include the following: the author, the title of the article or page, the name of the website, the website publisher (if available), the date of publication, and the specific web address or URL.

Johnson, Mary Anne. "How to Bake the Perfect Souffle." Food Network , Television Food Network, 20 February 2013, www.foodnetwork.com/article/perfect_souffle.

Bibliography Examples for Interviews

If you are citing a personal interview that you conducted yourself, include the name of the interviewee, last name first. Then add “Personal interview,” who conducted the interview, and the date the interview was conducted. For example:

Johnson, Anne. Personal interview with Mary Smith. Aug 22 2019.

If you are citing an interview performed by someone else, your citation should begin with the interviewee’s name, last name first, just like the personal interview. What follows depends on the format of the interview. If it appears in a printed publication like a book or magazine, the title of the publication in italics comes next, followed by any volume or issue numbers in plain text, followed by the year, followed by the page numbers in which the interview appears. For example:

Johnson, Anne. Interview with Mary Smith. Amazing Interviews Magazine , vol. 4, no. 2, 2019, pp. 100-105.

If the interview has a title of its own, independent of the work it’s published in, be sure to include it in quotations in place of “Interview with Mary Smith.” For example:

Johnson, Anne. “Reflections on Being an Interview Subject.” Amazing Interviews Magazine , vol. 4, no. 2, 2019, pp. 100-105.

If the interview is one part of a television program or other broadcast medium, follow the same pattern above, but omit reference to volume, issue and page number. Instead, include the interviewer’s name as “By [name]” after the show’s title, along with year of broadcast.

Johnson, Anne. “Reflections on Being an Interview Subject.” TV’s Most Amazing Interviews , By Mary Smith, 2019.

Bibliography Examples for Films

When citing a film, the format starts with the film title in italics, followed by “Directed by [name of director or directors],” then the film studio and release year. You can include noteworthy performances just after the directors if you choose. Here’s one without performers:

A Citable Film . Directed by John Smith and Jane Doe, Moviemaking Studios, 2019.

And here’s one with performers:

A Citable Film II . Directed by John Smith and Jane Doe, performances by Anne Johnson and Mark Smith, Moviemaking Studios, 2019.

Bibliography Examples for Television

Citing a television show follows the same format as films, but includes the episode title and ideally a specific airing date. The format should be: title of episode in quotation marks; title of show in italics; any season or episode information that would help readers locate the episode; “written by” and “directed by” with names for each; production company; date of broadcast. For example:

“Episode Name.” Show Name season 1, episode 1, written by John Smith and Jane Doe, directed by Mark Johnson, Distribution Distributors, 1 Aug 2019.

If you watched the episode through a streaming service, you should include the service name in italics and a link after the date:

“Episode Name.” Show Name season 1, episode 2, written by John Smith and Jane Doe, directed by Mark Johnson, Distribution Distributors, 7 Aug 2019. TVFlix , www.notareallink.com/watch/67584974.

Bibliography for Speeches, Presentations, and Conferences

Citing speeches, lectures, conferences, and other spoken material is only slightly different from citing interviews and print material. The entry should follow this pattern: name of speaker, last name first; title of speech in quotation marks; name of event at which speech was given; date in day-month-year order; location. For example:

Smith, Anne. “The Many Wonders of Speaking at Conferences.” Conference on Speaking Conferences, 1 Aug 2019, Turkeyfoot Hotel, Rabbit Hash, KY.

If you want to cite conference proceedings rather than a specific speech or event, your citation should follow the pattern of: proceedings editor, last name first; conference title in italics; conference date and location, publisher, date of publication. Note that the date will often be in the title of the proceedings; if that is the case, there’s no need to include it at the end. Here’s an example:

Smith, Anne. Conference on Speaking Conferences Proceedings, August 2019 . Turkeyfoot Hotel, Rabbit Hash KY: Publication Publishing.

And an example without the date in the title:

Smith, Anne. Conference on Speaking Conferences Proceedings . 1 Aug 2019, Turkeyfoot Hotel, Rabbit Hash, KY: Publication Publishing, 22 Aug 2019.

Note that the italics end with the title. That helps separate a date that is part of the title from a date you have included yourself. Also, note that when citing the published proceedings of a conference, two dates are called for: the date of the conference itself and the date the proceedings were published.

Other Types of Bibliographies

The above examples follow MLA citation format , but you may need more specific instructions if you’re using a different style guide. These guides include the APA style (for social sciences) and the Chicago Manual of Style (for fine arts and business). If you’re writing a journalistic article, you may want to use the AP Stylebook for your citations.

Bibliography, Annotated Bibliography or Works Cited?

Despite the varying terms, the difference between a bibliography, an annotated bibliography and a works cited page is simple.

A Bibliography Doesn’t Need to Be Hard Work

Regardless of the format used, every bibliography citation has to have a minimum amount of identifying information. Write down the citation information for each source as you review it, whether or not you think you will actually use it; it will keep your notes more organized and help you find information quickly when you're actually writing. The more you practice citations, the less of a chore they will be at the end of a lengthy paper.

For further help with formatting and style, refer to these resources:

How to Write a Bibliography (MLA, APA Examples)

Learn how to easily write a bibliography by following the format outlined in this article.

This resource will help your students properly cite different resources in the bibliography of a research paper, and how to format those citations, for books, encyclopedias, films, websites, and people.

What is a bibliography?

According to Infoplease.com, A bibliography is a list of the types of sources you used to get information for your report. It is included at the end of your report, on the last page (or last few pages).

What are the types of bibliography styles (MLA, APA, etc.)?

The 3 most common bibliography/citation styles are:

We’ll give examples of how to create bibliography entries in various styles further down in this article.

What sources do you put in a bibliography?

An annotated bibliography should include a reference list of any sources you use in writing a research paper. Any printed sources from which you use a text citation, including books, websites, newspaper articles, journal articles, academic writing, online sources (such as PDFs), and magazines should be included in a reference list. In some cases, you may need or want to cite conversations or interviews, works of art, visual works such as movies, television shows, or documentaries - these (and many others) can also be included in a reference list.

How to get started writing your bibliography

You will find it easier to prepare your MLA, APA, or Chicago annotated bibliography if you keep track of each book, encyclopedia, journal article, webpage or online source you use as you are reading and taking notes. Start a preliminary, or draft, bibliography by listing on a separate sheet of paper all your sources. Note down the full title, author’s last name, place of publication, web address, publisher, and date of publication for each source.

Haven't started your paper yet and need an outline? These sample essay outlines include a research paper outline from an actual student paper.

How to write a bibliography step-by-step (with examples)

General Format: Author (last name first). Title of the book. Publisher, Date of publication.

MLA Style: Sibley, David Allen. What It’s Like to Be a Bird. From Flying to Nesting, Eating to Singing, What Birds Are Doing, and Why. Alfred A. Knopf, 2020.

APA Style: Sibley, D.A. (2020). What It’s Like to Be a Bird. From Flying to Nesting, Eating to Singing, What Birds Are Doing, and Why . Alfred A. Knopf.

Notes: Use periods, not commas, to separate the data in the entry. Use a hanging indent if the entry is longer than one line. For APA style, do not use the full author’s first name.

Websites or webpages:

MLA Style: The SB Nation Family of Sites. Pension Plan Puppets: A Toronto Maple Leafs Blog, 2022, www.pensionplanpuppets.com. Accessed 15 Feb. 2022.

APA Style: American Heart Association. (2022, April 11). How to keep your dog’s heart healthy. https://www.heart.org/en/news/2022/04/11/how-to-keep-your-dogs-heart-healthy

Online news article from a newspaper site:

APA Style: Duehren, A. (2022, April 9). Janet Yellen faces challenge to keep pressure on Russia. Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/janet-yellen-faces-challenge-to-keep-pressure-on-russia-while-addressing-global-consequences-11650366000

Print journal articles:

MLA Style: Booch, Grady. "Patterns in Object-Oriented Design." IEEE Software Engineering, vol. 6, no. 6, 2006, pp. 31-50.

APA Style: Booch, G. (2006). Patterns in object-oriented design. IEEE Software Engineering, 6(6), 31–50.

Note: It is suggested that you include a DOI and a webpage address when referencing either a printed journal article, and electronic journal article, or an journal article that appears in both formats.

MLA Style: Gamma, Eric, and Peter A. Coad. “Exceptions to the Unified Modeling Language in Python Patterns.” IEEE Software Engineering, vol. 2, no. 6, 8 Mar. 2006, pp. 190-194. O’Reilly Software Engineering Library, https://doi.org/10.1006/se.20061. Accessed 26 May 2009.

APA Style: Masters, H., Barron, J., & Chanda, L. (2017). Motivational interviewing techniques for adolescent populations in substance abuse counseling. NAADAC Notes, 7(8), 7–13. https://www.naadac.com/notes/adolescent-techniques

ML:A Style: @Grady_Booch. “That’s a bold leap over plain old battery power cars.” Twitter, 13 Mar. 2013, 12:06 p.m., https://twitter.com/Grady_Booch/status/1516379006727188483.

APA Style: Westborough Library [@WestboroughLib]. (2022, April 12). Calling all 3rd through 5th grade kids! Join us for the Epic Writing Showdown! Winner receives a prize! Space is limited so register, today. loom.ly/ypaTG9Q [Tweet; thumbnail link to article]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/WestboroughLib/status/1516373550415896588.

Print magazine articles:

General format: Author (last name first), "Article Title." Name of magazine. Volume number, (Date): page numbers.

MLA Style: Stiteler, Sharon. "Tracking Red-Breasted Grosbeak Migration." Minnesota Bird Journal, 7 Sept. 2019, pp. 7-11.

APA Style: Jordan, Jennifer, "Filming at the Top of the World." Museum of Science Magazine. Volume 47, No. 1, (Winter 1998): p. 11.

Print newspaper articles:

General format: Author (last name first), "Article Title." Name of newspaper, city, state of publication. (date): edition if available, section, page number(s).

MLA Style: Adelman, Martin. "Augustus Announces Departure from City Manager Post." New York Times, late ed., 15 February 2020, p. A1

APA Style: Adelman, M. (2020, February 15). Augustus announced departure from city manager post. New York Times, A1.

Encyclopedias:

General Format: Encyclopedia Title, Edition Date. Volume Number, "Article Title," page numbers.

MLA Style: “Gorillas.” The Encyclopedia Brittanica. 15th ed. 2010.

APA Style: Encyclopedia Brittanica, Inc. (1997.) Gorillas. In The Encyclopedia Brittanica (15th ed., pp. 50-51). Encyclopedia Brittanica, Inc.

Personal interviews:

General format: Full name (last name first). Personal Interview. (Occupation.) Date of interview.

MLA Style: Smithfield, Joseph. Personal interview. 19 May 2014.

APA Style: APA does not require a formal citation for a personal interview. Published interviews from other sources should be cited accordingly.

Films and movies:

General format: Title, Director, Distributor, Year.

MLA Style: Fury. Directed by David Ayer, performances by Brad Pitt, Shia LaBeouf, Jon Bernthal, Sony Pictures, 2014.

APA Style: Ayer, D. (Director). (2014). Fury [Film]. Sony Pictures.

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How to Write a Bibliography, With Examples

You spent the past six hours grinding out your latest paper, but finally, it’s finished. It’s late, you’re exhausted, and all you want to do is click “Submit Assignment” and then get some sleep.

Not so fast. If your paper doesn’t have a properly formatted bibliography, it’s not finished.

A bibliography is a list of all the sources you consulted while writing your paper. Every book, article, and even video you used to gather information for your paper needs to be cited in your bibliography so your instructor (and any others reading your work) can trace the facts, statistics, and insights back to their original sources.

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What is the purpose of a bibliography?

A bibliography is the list of sources a work’s author used to create the work. It accompanies just about every type of academic writing , like essays , research papers , and reports . You might also find a brief, less formal bibliography at the end of a journalistic piece, presentation, or video when the author feels it’s necessary to cite their sources . In nearly all academic instances, a bibliography is required. Not including a bibliography (or including an incomplete, incorrect, or falsified bibliography) can be considered an act of plagiarism , which can lead to a failing grade, being dropped from your course or program, and even being suspended or expelled from your school.

A bibliography accomplishes a few things. These include:

Additionally, future historians consulting your writing can use your bibliography to identify primary and secondary sources in your research field. Documenting the course information from its original source through later academic works can help researchers understand how that information has been cited and interpreted over time. It can also help them review the information in the face of competing—and possibly contradictory or revisionary—data.

In nearly all cases, a bibliography is found at the end of a book or paper.

What are the different kinds of bibliographies?

Different types of academic works call for different types of bibliographies. For example, your computer science professor might require you to submit an annotated bibliography along with your paper because this type of bibliography explains the why behind each source you chose to consult.

Analytical bibliography

An analytical bibliography documents a work’s journey from manuscript to published book or article. This type of bibliography includes the physical characteristics of each cited source, like each work’s number of pages, type of binding used, and illustrations.

Annotated bibliography

An annotated bibliography is a bibliography that includes annotations, which are short notes explaining why the author chose each of the sources. Generally a few sentences long, these notes might summarize or reflect on the source.

An annotated bibliography is not the same as a literature review . While a literature review discusses how you conducted your research and how your work fits into the overall body of established research in your field, an annotated bibliography simply explains how each source you used is relevant to your work.

Enumerative bibliography

An enumerative bibliography is the most basic type of bibliography. It’s a list of sources used to conduct research, often ordered according to specific characteristics, like alphabetically by authors’ last names or grouped according to topic or language.

Specific types of enumerative bibliographies used for research works include:

National bibliography

A national bibliography groups sources published in a specific region or nation. In many cases, these bibliographies also group works according to the time period during which they were published.

Personal bibliography

A personal bibliography lists multiple works by the same individual author or group of authors. Often, personal bibliographies include works that would be difficult to find elsewhere, like unpublished works.

Corporate bibliography

In a corporate bibliography, the sources are grouped according to their relation to a specific organization. The sources can be about an organization, published by that organization, or owned by that organization.

Subject bibliography

Subject bibliographies group works according to the subjects they cover. Generally, these bibliographies list primary and secondary sources, whereas other types of enumerative bibliographies, like personal bibliographies, might not.

Other types of bibliographies

In some cases, it makes sense to use a bibliography format other than those listed here. These include:

Single-author bibliography

This type of bibliography lists works by a single author. With certain assignments, like an essay comparing two of an author’s books, your bibliography is a single-author bibliography by default. In this case, you can choose how to order the sources, such as by publication date or alphabetically by title.

Selected bibliography

A selected bibliography is a bibliography that only lists some of the sources you consulted. Usually, these are the most important sources for your work. You might write a selected bibliography if you consulted a variety of minor sources that you didn’t end up citing directly in your work. A selected bibliography may also be an annotated bibliography.

How is a bibliography structured?

Although each style guide has its own formatting rules for bibliographies, all bibliographies follow a similar structure. Key points to keep in mind when you’re structuring a bibliography include:

As noted above, different kinds of assignments require different kinds of bibliographies. For example, you might write an analytical bibliography for your art history paper because this type of bibliography gives you space to discuss how the construction methods used for your sources inform their content and vice-versa. If you aren’t sure which kind of bibliography to write, ask your instructor.

How do you write a bibliography?

The term “bibliography” is a catch-all for any list of sources cited at the end of an academic work. Certain style guides use different terminology to refer to bibliographies. For example, MLA format refers to a paper’s bibliography as its Works Cited page. APA refers to it as the References page. No matter which style guide you’re using, the process for writing a bibliography is generally the same. The primary difference between the different style guides is how the bibliography is formatted.

The first step in writing a bibliography is organizing all the relevant information about the sources you used in your research. Relevant information about a source can vary according to the type of media it is, the type of bibliography you’re writing, and your style guide. Determine which information you need to include about each source by consulting the style guide you’re using. If you aren’t sure what to include, or if you’re not sure which style guide to use, ask your instructor.

The next step is to format your sources according to the style guide you’re using. MLA , APA , and the Chicago Manual of Style are three of the most commonly used style guides in academic writing.

MLA Works Cited page

In MLA format , the bibliography is known as the Works Cited page. MLA is typically used for writing in the humanities, like English and History. Because of this, it includes guidelines for citing sources like plays, videos , and works of visual art —sources you’d find yourself consulting for these courses, but probably not in your science and business courses.

In MLA format, books are cited like this:

If the cited book was published prior to 1900, is from a publisher with offices in multiple countries, or is from a publisher that is largely unknown in the US, include the book’s city of publication. Otherwise, this can be left out.

Scholarly articles are cited in this format:

Author(s). “Title of Article.” Title of Periodical, Day Month Year, pages.

APA References page

In APA format —the format typically used in psychology, nursing, business, and the social sciences—the bibliography page is titled References. This format includes citation instructions for technical papers and data-heavy research, the types of sources you’re likely to consult for academic writing in these fields.

In APA format, books are cited like this:

Digital object identifier (DOI).

(issue number) , article’s page range (i.e., 10-15). URL.

Chicago Manual of Style

The Chicago Manual of Style (CMoS) permits authors to format bibliographies in two different ways: the notes and bibliography system and the author-date system. The former is generally used in the humanities, whereas the latter is usually used in the sciences and social sciences.

Both systems include guidelines for citations on a paper’s body pages as well as a bibliographic list that follows the paper. This list is titled Bibliography.

In CMoS, books are cited like this:

publication.

number (year published): page numbers of the article (i.e., 10-15).

Bibliography FAQs

What is a bibliography.

A bibliography is the list of sources a work’s author used to create the work.

What are the different kinds of bibliographies?

There are many different kinds of bibliographies. These include:

How do you write a bibliography for different style guides?

Each style guide publishes its bibliography guidelines online. Locate the guidelines for the style guide you’re following ( Chicago Manual of Style , MLA , APA ), and using the examples provided, format and list the sources for your work.

example of bibliography in research paper

Preliminary Bibliography Examples

When you’re trying to get your project or research paper organized, it can be helpful to create a preliminary bibliography before jumping in head first. Not only will this help you to organize your research, but it’ll give you a good start on your paper. Preliminary bibliographies can also help you figure out which sources are keepers or duds.

What Is a Preliminary Bibliography?

After you hone down your topic, you can start the research phase. However, before you dive right into writing your paper, a preliminary bibliography can help get you started. So, what is a preliminary bibliography? Basically, it’s an outline of all the sources that you might use to compose your arguments. In other words, you can think of it as a starter bibliography.

Format and Style

There isn’t a standard format that a preliminary bibliography can take on. It comes down to writing style , personal preference and instructor requirements. However, there are a few basic ways that you can choose to lay one out.

Source List

The source list preliminary bibliography offers a list of your primary and secondary sources that you are going to use. For example, in MLA style, it might look something like:

Preliminary Bibliography

Jennifer Betts

Topic: Hunger Games

Context: Dystopian Fiction

Primary Sources:

Collins, Suzanne. The Hunger Games . New York, Scholastic Press, 2008.

The Hunger Games. Scholastic , 2008, thehungergames.co.uk/. Accessed 4 Jan. 2019.

Secondary Sources:

The Capital. pn/. Accessed 4 Jan. 2019.

Annotated Preliminary Bibliography

Another method you can use is by adding notes, or annotating the important information found in the different sources. Instead of breaking down the primary and secondary sources, the preliminary bibliography will be listed in alphabetical order like a typical bib, but you discuss what value each source will add. The annotation might only be one sentence, or it might be several. In APA, this might look like:

This book will add the meat for most of my arguments about dystopian writing…

Collins, S. (2008). The Hunger Games . New York: Scholastic Press.

This blog discusses … which will add…

Pike, Ben. (2017, May 5). The Hunger Games [blog post]. Retrieved from http://marbleheadcharter.org/bookblog/the-hunger-games/

Try a Combo

You might also try to create a combination of the two for your preliminary bibliography. This means you are evaluating your primary and secondary sources and adding annotations about what they will add to your article, as well as the different chapters that might be important. In MLA, this could take the form of:

1. Collins, Suzanne. The Hunger Games . New York, Scholastic Press, 2008.

This source will provide most of the information and quotes used in the article like…

2. The Hunger Games. Scholastic , 2008, thehungergames.co.uk/. Accessed 4 Jan. 2019.

The images and discussions work well to add…

Secondary Sources

2. The Capital. pn/. Accessed 4 Jan. 2019.

Under the header capital, it helps to support the argument…

What’s in a Name?

You might notice that this will be called a preliminary bibliography rather than a preliminary works cited or reference page. This is because you will add all the sources that will go into the inception of your paper, even if you don’t cite them in the body of the piece. A reference page or works cited will only list those sources that are cited in the work, while a Chicago style format bibliography will list all the sources used to create the paper.

Students creating preliminary bibliography

Getting Your Start

In addition to having an outline for your paper, it can be helpful to have an outline of the sources that you are going to use in your MLA or Chicago format paper. This preliminary bibliography will break down the sources you’re going to use or might be helpful in an easy to follow way. Plus, it’ll help you create your reference page once you are done.

Making an Outline for Your School Essay in APA, MLA or Chicago

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Bibliography – Examples, PDF

Step 1: Author’s Name, Year and Title of the Book

Purdue Online Writing Lab College of Liberal Arts

Annotated Bibliography Samples

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

This handout provides information about annotated bibliographies in MLA, APA, and CMS.

Below you will find sample annotations from annotated bibliographies, each with a different research project. Remember that the annotations you include in your own bibliography should reflect your research project and/or the guidelines of your assignment.

As mentioned elsewhere in this resource, depending on the purpose of your bibliography, some annotations may summarize, some may assess or evaluate a source, and some may reflect on the source’s possible uses for the project at hand. Some annotations may address all three of these steps. Consider the purpose of your annotated bibliography and/or your instructor’s directions when deciding how much information to include in your annotations.

Please keep in mind that all your text, including the write-up beneath the citation, must be indented so that the author's last name is the only text that is flush left.

Sample MLA Annotation

Lamott, Anne. Bird by Bird: Some Instructions on Writing and Life . Anchor Books, 1995.

Lamott's book offers honest advice on the nature of a writing life, complete with its insecurities and failures. Taking a humorous approach to the realities of being a writer, the chapters in Lamott's book are wry and anecdotal and offer advice on everything from plot development to jealousy, from perfectionism to struggling with one's own internal critic.

In the process, Lamott includes writing exercises designed to be both productive and fun. Lamott offers sane advice for those struggling with the anxieties of writing, but her main project seems to be offering the reader a reality check regarding writing, publishing, and struggling with one's own imperfect humanity in the process. Rather than a practical handbook to producing and/or publishing, this text is indispensable because of its honest perspective, its down-to-earth humor, and its encouraging approach.

Chapters in this text could easily be included in the curriculum for a writing class. Several of the chapters in Part 1 address the writing process and would serve to generate discussion on students' own drafting and revising processes. Some of the writing exercises would also be appropriate for generating classroom writing exercises. Students should find Lamott's style both engaging and enjoyable.

In the sample annotation above, the writer includes three paragraphs: a summary, an evaluation of the text, and a reflection on its applicability to his/her own research, respectively.

For information on formatting MLA citations, see our MLA 9th Edition (2021) Formatting and Style Guide .

Sample APA Annotation

Ehrenreich, B. (2001). Nickel and dimed: On (not) getting by in America . Henry Holt and Company.

In this book of nonfiction based on the journalist's experiential research, Ehrenreich attempts to ascertain whether it is currently possible for an individual to live on a minimum-wage in America. Taking jobs as a waitress, a maid in a cleaning service, and a Walmart sales employee, the author summarizes and reflects on her work, her relationships with fellow workers, and her financial struggles in each situation.

An experienced journalist, Ehrenreich is aware of the limitations of her experiment and the ethical implications of her experiential research tactics and reflects on these issues in the text. The author is forthcoming about her methods and supplements her experiences with scholarly research on her places of employment, the economy, and the rising cost of living in America. Ehrenreich’s project is timely, descriptive, and well-researched.

The annotation above both summarizes and assesses the book in the citation. The first paragraph provides a brief summary of the author's project in the book, covering the main points of the work. The second paragraph points out the project’s strengths and evaluates its methods and presentation. This particular annotation does not reflect on the source’s potential importance or usefulness for this person’s own research.

For information on formatting APA citations, see our APA Formatting and Style Guide .

Sample Chicago Manual of Style Annotation

Davidson, Hilda Ellis. Roles of the Northern Goddess . London: Routledge, 1998.

Davidson's book provides a thorough examination of the major roles filled by the numerous pagan goddesses of Northern Europe in everyday life, including their roles in hunting, agriculture, domestic arts like weaving, the household, and death. The author discusses relevant archaeological evidence, patterns of symbol and ritual, and previous research. The book includes a number of black and white photographs of relevant artifacts.

This annotation includes only one paragraph, a summary of the book. It provides a concise description of the project and the book's project and its major features.

For information on formatting Chicago Style citations, see our Chicago Manual of Style resources.

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What Is an Annotated Bibliography? | Examples & Format

Published on March 9, 2021 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on August 23, 2022.

An annotated bibliography is a list of source references that includes a short descriptive text (an annotation) for each source. It may be assigned as part of the research process for a paper , or as an individual assignment to gather and read relevant sources on a topic.

Scribbr’s free Citation Generator allows you to easily create and manage your annotated bibliography in APA or MLA style. To generate a perfectly formatted annotated bibliography, select the source type, fill out the relevant fields, and add your annotation.

The Scribbr Citation Generator will automatically create a flawless APA citation

The Scribbr Citation Generator will automatically create a flawless MLA citation

An example of an annotated source is shown below:

Annotated bibliography format: apa, mla, chicago, how to write an annotated bibliography, descriptive annotation example, evaluative annotation example, reflective annotation example, finding sources for your annotated bibliography, frequently asked questions about annotated bibliographies.

Make sure your annotated bibliography is formatted according to the guidelines of the style guide you’re working with. Three common styles are covered below:

In APA Style , both the reference entry and the annotation should be double-spaced and left-aligned.

The reference entry itself should have a hanging indent . The annotation follows on the next line, and the whole annotation should be indented to match the hanging indent. The first line of any additional paragraphs should be indented an additional time.

In an MLA style annotated bibliography , the Works Cited entry and the annotation are both double-spaced and left-aligned.

The Works Cited entry has a hanging indent. The annotation itself is indented 1 inch (twice as far as the hanging indent). If there are two or more paragraphs in the annotation, the first line of each paragraph is indented an additional half-inch, but not if there is only one paragraph.

Chicago style

In a Chicago style annotated bibliography , the bibliography entry itself should be single-spaced and feature a hanging indent.

The annotation should be indented, double-spaced, and left-aligned. The first line of any additional paragraphs should be indented an additional time.

For each source, start by writing (or generating ) a full reference entry that gives the author, title, date, and other information. The annotated bibliography format varies based on the citation style you’re using.

The annotations themselves are usually between 50 and 200 words in length, typically formatted as a single paragraph. This can vary depending on the word count of the assignment, the relative length and importance of different sources, and the number of sources you include.

Consider the instructions you’ve been given or consult your instructor to determine what kind of annotations they’re looking for:

These specific terms won’t necessarily be used. The important thing is to understand the purpose of your assignment and pick the approach that matches it best. Interactive examples of the different styles of annotation are shown below.

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A descriptive annotation summarizes the approach and arguments of a source in an objective way, without attempting to assess their validity.

In this way, it resembles an abstract , but you should never just copy text from a source’s abstract, as this would be considered plagiarism . You’ll naturally cover similar ground, but you should also consider whether the abstract omits any important points from the full text.

The interactive example shown below describes an article about the relationship between business regulations and CO 2 emissions.

Rieger, A. (2019). Doing business and increasing emissions? An exploratory analysis of the impact of business regulation on CO 2 emissions. Human Ecology Review , 25 (1), 69–86. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26964340

An evaluative annotation also describes the content of a source, but it goes on to evaluate elements like the validity of the source’s arguments and the appropriateness of its methods .

For example, the following annotation describes, and evaluates the effectiveness of, a book about the history of Western philosophy.

Kenny, A. (2010). A new history of Western philosophy: In four parts . Oxford University Press.

A reflective annotation is similar to an evaluative one, but it focuses on the source’s usefulness or relevance to your own research.

Reflective annotations are often required when the point is to gather sources for a future research project, or to assess how they were used in a project you already completed.

The annotation below assesses the usefulness of a particular article for the author’s own research in the field of media studies.

Manovich, Lev. (2009). The practice of everyday (media) life: From mass consumption to mass cultural production? Critical Inquiry , 35 (2), 319–331. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/596645

Manovich’s article assesses the shift from a consumption-based media culture (in which media content is produced by a small number of professionals and consumed by a mass audience) to a production-based media culture (in which this mass audience is just as active in producing content as in consuming it). He is skeptical of some of the claims made about this cultural shift; specifically, he argues that the shift towards user-made content must be regarded as more reliant upon commercial media production than it is typically acknowledged to be. However, he regards web 2.0 as an exciting ongoing development for art and media production, citing its innovation and unpredictability.

The article is outdated in certain ways (it dates from 2009, before the launch of Instagram, to give just one example). Nevertheless, its critical engagement with the possibilities opened up for media production by the growth of social media is valuable in a general sense, and its conceptualization of these changes frequently applies just as well to more current social media platforms as it does to Myspace. Conceptually, I intend to draw on this article in my own analysis of the social dynamics of Twitter and Instagram.

Before you can write your annotations, you’ll need to find sources . If the annotated bibliography is part of the research process for a paper, your sources will be those you consult and cite as you prepare the paper. Otherwise, your assignment and your choice of topic will guide you in what kind of sources to look for.

Make sure that you’ve clearly defined your topic , and then consider what keywords are relevant to it, including variants of the terms. Use these keywords to search databases (e.g., Google Scholar ), using Boolean operators to refine your search.

Sources can include journal articles, books, and other source types , depending on the scope of the assignment. Read the abstracts or blurbs of the sources you find to see whether they’re relevant, and try exploring their bibliographies to discover more. If a particular source keeps showing up, it’s probably important.

Once you’ve selected an appropriate range of sources, read through them, taking notes that you can use to build up your annotations. You may even prefer to write your annotations as you go, while each source is fresh in your mind.

An annotated bibliography is an assignment where you collect sources on a specific topic and write an annotation for each source. An annotation is a short text that describes and sometimes evaluates the source.

Any credible sources on your topic can be included in an annotated bibliography . The exact sources you cover will vary depending on the assignment, but you should usually focus on collecting journal articles and scholarly books . When in doubt, utilize the CRAAP test !

Each annotation in an annotated bibliography is usually between 50 and 200 words long. Longer annotations may be divided into paragraphs .

The content of the annotation varies according to your assignment. An annotation can be descriptive, meaning it just describes the source objectively; evaluative, meaning it assesses its usefulness; or reflective, meaning it explains how the source will be used in your own research .

A source annotation in an annotated bibliography fulfills a similar purpose to an abstract : they’re both intended to summarize the approach and key points of a source.

However, an annotation may also evaluate the source , discussing the validity and effectiveness of its arguments. Even if your annotation is purely descriptive , you may have a different perspective on the source from the author and highlight different key points.

You should never just copy text from the abstract for your annotation, as doing so constitutes plagiarism .

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Caulfield, J. (2022, August 23). What Is an Annotated Bibliography? | Examples & Format. Scribbr. Retrieved March 3, 2023, from https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/annotated-bibliography/

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ADHD Research Paper

This sample ADHD research paper features: 8200 words (approx. 27 pages), an outline, and a bibliography with 14 sources. Browse other research paper examples for more inspiration. If you need a thorough research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help. This is how your paper can get an A! Feel free to contact our writing service for professional assistance. We offer high-quality assignments for reasonable rates.

I. Introduction

II. Historical Context

III. Description and Diagnosis

A. The Core Symptoms

B. associated cognitive impairments, iv. theoretical framework.

V. Potential Etiologies

VI. Epidemiology of ADHD

Vii. developmental course and adult outcome, viii. diagnostic criteria, ix. conclusion.

X. Bibliography

It is not unusual for young children to be energetic and active, or to become bored quickly and move from one activity to another as they explore their environment. A young child’s desire for immediate gratification is to be expected, rather than the restraint or self-control that would be demanded of someone older. However, some children persistently display levels of activity that are far in excess of their age group. Some are unable to sustain their attention to activities, their interest in tasks assigned to them by others, or their persistence in achieving long-term goals as well as their peers.

When a child’s impulse control, sustained attention, and general self-regulation lag far behind expectations for their developmental level, they are likely to be diagnosed as having ADHD. Children with ADHD have a greater probability of experiencing a number of problems in their social, academic, and emotional development and daily adaptive functioning.

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) has captured public commentary and scientific interest for more than 100 years. While the diagnostic labels for disorders of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness have changed numerous times, the actual nature of the disorder has changed little, if at all, from descriptions provided at the turn of the century. During the past century, and especially during the last 30 years, thousands of published scientific papers have focused on ADHD, making it one of the most wellstudied childhood psychiatric disorders.

II. Historical Context of ADHD

Serious clinical interest in children who have severe problems with inattention, hyperactivity, and poor impulse control is first found in three published lectures by the English physician, George Still, presented to the Royal Academy of Physicians in 1902. Still reported on a group of 20 children in his clinical practice whom he defined as having a deficit in “volitional inhibition” or a “defect in moral control” over their own behavior. Still’s observations described many of the associated features of ADHD that would be supported by research almost a century later, such as an overrepresentation of boys compared to girls, the greater incidence of alcoholism, criminal conduct, and depression among the biological relatives, and a familial predisposition to the disorder.

Initial interest in children with these characteristics arose in North America around the time of the great encephalitis epidemics of 1917 and 1918. Children surviving these brain infections were noted to have many behavioral problems similar to those comprising contemporary ADHD. These cases, as well as others known to have arisen from birth trauma, head injury, toxin exposure, and infections, gave rise to the concept of a “brain-injured child syndrome,” often associated with mental retardation. This term was eventually applied to children without a history of brain damage or evidence of retardation but who manifested behavioral problems such as hyperactivity or poor impulse control. This concept would later evolve into that of “minimal brain damage,” and eventually “minimal brain dysfunction” (MBD), as challenges were raised to the label given the lack of evidence of brain injury in many of these cases.

During the 1950s researchers became increasingly interested in hyperactivity. “Hyperkinetic impulse disorder” was attributed to cortical overstimulation resuiting from ineffective filtering of stimuli entering the brain. These studies gave rise to the notion of the “hyperactive child syndrome” typified by daily motor movement that was far in excess of that seen in normal children of the same age.

By the 1970s research findings emphasized the importance of problems with sustained attention and impulse control in addition to hyperactivity in understanding the nature of the disorder. In 1983 Virginia Douglas proposed that the disorder was comprised of major deficits in four areas: (1) the investment, organization, and maintenance of attention and effort; (2) the ability to inhibit impulsive behavior; (3) the ability to modulate arousal levels to meet situational demands; and (4) an unusually strong inclination to seek immediate reinforcement. Douglas’ work, along with numerous subsequent studies of attention, impulsiveness, and other cognitive factors, eventually led to renaming the disorder “Attention Deficit Disorder” (ADD) in 1980.

Just as significant as the renaming of the condition at that time was the distinction made between two types of ADD: those with hyperactivity and those without it. Little research existed at the time on the latter subtype. However, later research suggested that ADD without hyperactivity might be a separate and distinct disorder of a different component of attention (selective or focused) than was the type of inattention seen in those with ADD with hyperactivity (persistence and distractibility). Thus, rather than being related subtypes of a single disorder with a shared, common impairment in attention, future research may show these subtypes to constitute separate disorders of attention altogether.

Within a few years of the creation of the label ADD, concern was raised by Barkley in 1990 and Weiss and Hechtman in 1993 that problems with hyperactivity and impulse control were features critically important to differentiating the disorder from other conditions and to predicting later developmental risks. In 1987 the disorder was renamed Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Diagnostic symptoms were identified from a single list of items incorporating all three constructs: hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention. The subtype of ADD without Hyperactivity was now renamed Undifferentiated ADD and relegated to minor diagnostic status until further research could clarify its nature and relationship to ADHD.

Around this same time (mid-1980s to 1990s) reports began to appear that challenged the notion that ADHD was primarily a disturbance in attention. Over the previous decade, researchers studying information-processing capacities in children with ADHD were having difficulty demonstrating that the problems these children had with attending to tasks were actually attentional in nature (i.e., related to the processing of incoming information). Problems in response inhibition and preparedness of the motor control system appeared to be more reliably demonstrated. Researchers, moreover, were finding that the problems with hyperactivity and impulsivity were not separate constructs but formed a single dimension of behavior. All of this led to the creation of two separate lists of symptoms for ADHD when the latest diagnostic manual for psychiatry, The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (also known as the DSM-IV) was published by the American Psychiatric Association in 1994. In the DSM-IV, one symptom list now existed for inattention and another for hyperactive-impulsive behavior. The inattention list once again permitted the diagnosis of a subtype of ADHD that consisted principally of problems with attention (ADHD Predominantly Inattentive Type). But two other subtypes were also identified (Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive and Combined Types). As of this writing, debate continues over the core deficit(s) involved in ADHD, with increasing emphasis being given to a central problem specifically with behavioral inhibition and more generally with self-regulation or executive functioning.

III. ADHD Description and Diagnosis

Problems with attention consist of the child’s inability to sustain attention or respond to tasks or play activities as long as others of the same age or to follow through on rules and instructions as well as others. The child appears more disorganized, distracted, and forgetful than others of the same age. Parents and teachers frequently complain that these children do not seem to listen as well as they should for their age, cannot concentrate, are easily distracted, fail to finish assignments, daydream, and change activities more often than others.

Research corroborates that, when compared to normal children, ADHD children are often more “off-task,” less likely to complete as much work as others, look away more from the activities they are requested to do (including television), persist less in correctly performing boring activities, and are slower and less likely to return to an activity once interrupted. Yet objective research does not find children with ADHD to be generally more distracted by most forms of extraneous events occurring during their task performance, although distractors within the task may prove more disruptive to them than to normal children. Research instead documents that ADHD children are more active than other children, are less mature in controlling motor movements, and have considerable difficulties with stopping an ongoing behavior. They frequently talk more than others and interrupt others’ conversations. They are less able to resist immediate temptations and delay gratification and respond too quickly and too often when they are required to wait and watch for events to happen.

Recent research shows that the problems with behavioral or motor inhibition arise first, at age 3 to 4 years, with those related to inattention emerging somewhat later in the developmental course of ADHD, at age 5 to 7 years. Whereas the symptoms of disinhibition seem to decline with age, those of inattention remain relatively stable during the elementary grades. Yet even the inattentiveness may decline by adolescence in some cases.

A number of factors have been noted to influence the ability of children with ADHD to sustain their attention to task performance, to control their impulses to act, to regulate their activity level, and to produce work consistently. They include: time of day or fatigue; increasing task complexity where organizational strategies are required; extent of restraint demanded for the context; level of stimulation within the setting; the schedule of immediate consequences associated with the task; and the absence of adult supervision during task performance.

It has been shown that children with ADHD are most problematic in their behavior when persistence in work-related tasks is required (i.e., chores, homework, etc.) or where behavioral restraint is necessary, especially in settings involving reduced parental monitoring (i.e., in church, in restaurants, when a parent is on the phone, etc.). Such children are least likely to pose behavioral management problems during free play, when little self-control is required. Fluctuations in the severity of ADHD symptoms have also been documented across a variety of school contexts. In this case, classroom activities involving self-organization and task-directed persistence are the most problematic, with significantly fewer problems posed by contexts involving fewer performance demands (i.e., at lunch, in hallways, at recess, etc.), and even fewer problems posed during highly entertaining special events (i.e., field trips, assemblies, etc.).

Although ADHD is defined by the presence of the two major symptom dimensions of inattention and disinhibition (hyperactivity-impulsivity), research indicates that these children often demonstrate deficiencies in many other abilities. These include: motor coordination and sequencing; working memory and mental computation; planning and anticipation or preparedness for action; verbal fluency and confrontational communication; effort allocation; applying organization strategies; the internalization of self-directed speech; adhering to restrictive instructions; the self-regulation of emotions; and self-motivation. Several studies have also demonstrated what both Still (1902) and Douglas (1983) noted anecdotally years ago–ADHD may be associated with less mature or diminished moral reasoning and the moral control of behavior.

The commonality among most or all of these seemingly disparate abilities is that all fall within the neuropsychological domain described as executive functions. The neurologist Joaquim Fuster wrote in 1989 that these executive abilities are probably mediated by the frontal cortex of the brain, and particularly the prefrontal lobes. Barkley has recently defined executive functions as being those neuropsychological processes that permit or assist with human self-regulation. Self-regulation is then defined as any self-directed form of behavior (both overt and covert) that serves to modify the probability of a subsequent behavior by the individual so as to alter the probability of a later consequence. Such behavior may even involve forgoing immediate rewards for the sake of maximizing delayed outcomes or even exposing oneself to immediate aversive circumstances for this same purpose. Self-regulatory behavior, therefore, includes thinking within this realm of private or covert self-directed behavior. By appreciating the role of the frontal lobes and the prefrontal cortex in these executive abilities, it is easy to see why researchers have repeatedly speculated that ADHD probably arises out of some disturbance or dysfunction of this brain region.

Many different hypotheses on the nature of ADHD have been proposed over the past century, such as Still’s (1902) notion of defective volitional inhibition and moral regulation of behavior, and Douglas’ (1983) theory of deficient attention, inhibition, arousal, and preference for immediate reward. Few of these have produced models of the disorder that were widely adopted by both scientists and clinicians or that served to drive further programmatic research initiatives. Some of these theories have suggested that ADHD is a deficit in sensitivity to reinforcement, a more general motivational disorder, or a deficit in rule-governed behavior (i.e., the control of behavior by language). Most recently, several theorists working in this area have proposed that ADHD represents a deficit behavioral inhibition; an assertion for which there is substantial evidence, at least for those subtypes that involve hyperactive-impulsive symptoms.

Consistent with these proposals, Barkley outlined a model of ADHD in 1994 that was based upon an earlier theory by Jacob Bronowski first set forth in 1966 on the evolution of the unique properties of human language and their relationship to response inhibition. Bronowski’s model was subsequently combined with that of Juaquim Fuster published in 1989, which specified that the overarching role of the prefrontal cortex is the cross-temporal organization of behavior. Barkley’s hybrid theoretical model of ADHD places behavioral inhibition at a central point and supportive point in relation to four other executive functions dependent upon it for their own effective execution. These functions are working memory, the self-regulation of emotion/motivation, the internalization of speech, and reconstitution (analysis and synthesis of behavioral structures in the service of goal-directed behavioral creativity). The four functions are believed to permit and subserve human self-regulation, bringing behavior progressively under the control of internally represented information, often about the future, and transferring it at least partially away from the control of behavior by more immediate consequences and external events. The executive control of behavior afforded by these functions is proposed to result in a greater capacity for predicting and controlling one’s self and one’s environment so as to maximize future consequences over immediate ones for the individual. And, more generally, the interaction of these executive functions permits far more organized and effective adaptive functioning.

Several assumptions are important in understanding this model as it is applied to ADHD. First, the capacity for behavioral inhibition begins to emerge first in the child’s development, prior to or corresponding with the emergence of the four executive functions. Second, inhibition does not directly cause the activation of these executive functions but sets the occasion for their occurrence and is necessary for their effective performance. Third, these functions probably emerge at different times in the child’s development and may have relatively independent developmental trajectories, although interactive. Fourth, the sweeping cognitive impairments that ADHD creates across these executive functions are secondary to the primary deficit in behavioral inhibition, implying that if inhibition were to be improved, these executive functions would likewise improve.

The deficit in behavioral inhibition is thought to arise principally from genetic and neurodevelopmental origins, rather than from purely social ones, although its expression is certainly influenced by a variety of social factors. The secondary deficits in the executive functions and self-regulation created by the primary deficit in inhibition feedback to contribute to further deficits in behavioral inhibition because self-regulation is required for self-restraint.

Behavioral inhibition is viewed in the model as comprising three related processes: (1) the capacity to inhibit “prepotent” responses prior to their initiation; (2) the capacity to cease ongoing response patterns once initiated such that both (1) and (2) create delays in responding to events; and (3) the protection of this delay and the self-directed (often private or cognitive) actions occurring within it from interference by competing events and their prepotent responses (interference control). Prepotent responses are defined as those for which immediate reinforcement (both positive and negative) is available for their performance or for which there is a strong history of reinforcement in this context. Through the postponement of the prepotent, automatic responses and the creation of this protected period of delay, the occasion is set for the four executive functions to act effectively in modifying the individual’s eventual initial responding to events or modifying their ongoing responses to those events (creating a sensitivity to feedback or errors). The executive system described here may exist so as to achieve a net maximization of both temporally distant and immediate consequences rather than immediate consequences alone. The chain of goal-directed, future-oriented behaviors set in motion by these acts of self-regulation is then also protected from interference during its performance by this same process of inhibition (interference control). Even if disrupted, the individual retains the capacity or intention (via working memory) to return to the goal-directed actions until the outcome is successfully achieved or judged to be no longer necessary.

Space permits here only a brief description of each of the four executive components of this new model of ADHD. The first of these involves working memory, or the capacity for prolonging and manipulating mental representations of events and using such information to control motor behavior. This particular type of memory can be thought of as remembering so as to do and serves to sustain otherwise fleeting information that will be useful in controlling subsequent responding, such as is seen in privately rehearsing a telephone number in mind so as to later dial it accurately. One component of working memory may be related to self-speech (verbal working memory), while a second component is related to perceptual imagery (visual-spatial) and probably involves self-directed sensing, as in visual imagery or covert audition. This retention of information related to past events (retrospection) gives rise to the conjecturing of future events (prospection), which sets in motion a preparedness to act in anticipation of the arrival of these future events (anticipatory set). Out of this continuous referencing or sensing of past and future probably arises the psychological sense of time. These activities taking place in working memory appear to be dependent upon behavioral inhibition. Such working memory processes have been shown to exist in rudimentary form even in young infants permitting them to successfully perform delayed response tasks to a limited degree. As the capacity for inhibition increases developmentally, it probably contributes to the further efficiency and effectiveness of working memory.

According to this model of ADHD, behavioral inhibition also sets the stage for the development of the second executive component of this model, that being the self-regulation of emotion in children. The inhibition of the initial prepotent response includes the inhibition of the initial emotional reaction that it may have elicited. It is not that the child does not experience emotion; rather, the behavioral reaction to or expression of that emotion is delayed along with any motor behavior associated with it. The delay in responding this creates allows the child time to engage in self-directed behaviors that will modify both the eventual response to the event as well as the emotional reaction that may accompany it. Because emotions are themselves forms of both motivational and arousal states, the model argues that deficits in the self-regulation of emotion should be associated with deficits in self-motivation and the self-control of arousal, particularly in the service of goal-directed behavior.

The internalization of self-directed speech, as originally described by Vygotsky, forms the third executive component of this model of ADHD. During the early preschool years, speech, once developed, is initially employed for communication with others. As behavioral inhibition progresses, language becomes turned on the self. It now is not just a means of influencing the behavior of others but provides a means of reflection as well as a means for controlling one’s own behavior (instruction).

The fourth component of this model involves the capacity to rapidly take apart and recombine units of behavior, including language. The delay in responding that behavioral inhibition permits allows time for information related to the event to be mentally prolonged and then dissassembled so as to extract more information about the event that will aid in preparing a response to it. In a related fashion, previously learned response patterns can also be broken down into smaller units of behavior. This internal decomposition of information and its associated response patterns permits the complementary process to occur, that being synthesis, or the invention of novel combinations of behavioral structures, including words and ideas, in the service of goal-directed action. This gives a highly creative or generative character as well as a hierarchically organized nature to human goal-directed behavior.

Finally, the internally represented information and motivation generated by these four executive functions is used to control a separate unit within the model, that being motor behavior itself. Such information serves to program, execute, and sustain behavior directed toward goals and the future, giving human behavior an intentional or purposive quality. Task-irrelevant movement is now more effectively suppressed, goal-directed behavior better sustained, and this pattern of behavior more efficiently reengaged should disruption of the behavioral pattern occur because of the control afforded by the internal information being generated from the four executive functions.

The impairment in behavioral inhibition occurring in ADHD is hypothesized to disrupt the efficient execution of these executive functions, thereby limiting the capacity of these individuals for self-regulation. The result is an impairment in the cross-temporal organization of behavior, in the prediction and control of one’s own behavior and environment, and inevitably in the maximization of long-term consequences for the individual.

How does this model account for the problems with attention believed to exist in ADHD? According to this model, it is critical to distinguish between two forms of sustained attention that are traditionally confused in the research literature on ADHD. The first is called contingency-shaped attention. This refers to continued responding in a situation or to a task as a function of the immediate available contingencies of reinforcement provided by the task or its context. Responding that is maintained under these conditions then is directly dependent on the immediate environmental contingencies. Many factors affect this form of sustained attention or responding: the novelty of the task, the intrinsic interest the activity may hold for the individual, the immediate reinforcement it provides for responding in the task, the state of fatigue of the individual, and the presence or absence of an adult supervisor (or other stimuli which signal other consequences for performance that are outside the task itself). The model predicts that this type of sustained attention relatively unaffected by ADHD as it is behavior under the control of external events.

As children mature, however, a second form of sustained attention emerges described in the model as goal-directed persistence. This form of sustained responding arises as a direct consequence of the development of self-regulation or the control of behavior by internally represented information. Such persistence derives from the development of a progressively greater capacity by the child to hold events, goals, and plans in mind (working memory), to adhere to rules governing behavior and to formulate and follow such rules, to self-induce a motivational state supportive of the plans and goals formulated by the individual so as to maintain goal-directed behavior, and even to create novel behaviors in the service of the goal’s attainment. The capacity to initiate and sustain chains of goal-directed behavior in spite of the absence of immediate environmental contingencies for their performance is predicted to be the form of sustained attention disrupted by ADHD.

Apart from this heuristically valuable distinction in forms of sustained attention, this theoretical model of ADHD makes numerous predictions about the cognitive and behavioral deficits likely to be found in those with the disorder (i.e., impaired working memory and sense of time, delayed internalization of speech, etc.), many of which have received little or no attention in research on ADHD. It also provides a framework by which to better organize and understand the numerous cognitive deficits identified in previous studies of children with ADHD than does the current view of ADHD as being chiefly an attention deficit.

V. Potential Etiologies of ADHD

The precise causes of ADHD are unknown at the present time. Numerous causes have been proposed, but evidence for many has been weak or lacking entirely. However, a number of factors have been shown to be associated with a significantly increased risk for ADHD in children.

The vast majority of the potentially causative factors associated with ADHD that are supported by empirical research seem to be biological in nature; that is, they are factors known to be related to or to have a direct effect on brain development and/or functioning. The precise causal pathways by which these factors lead to ADHD, however, are simply not known at this time.

Even so, far less evidence is available to support any purely psychosocial etiology of ADHD. In the vast majority of cases where such psychosocial risks have been found to be significantly associated with ADHD or hyperactivity, more careful analysis has shown these to be either the result of ADHD in the child or, far more often, to be related to aggression or conduct disorder rather than to ADHD. For instance, the child management methods used by parents, parenting stress, marital conflict, or parental psychopathology have now been shown to be far more strongly associated with aggressive and antisocial behavior than with ADHD. The strong hereditary influence in ADHD may also contribute to an apparent link between ADHD and poor child management by a parent — a link that may be attributable to the parent’s own ADHD. The environment in which the child is raised and schooled probably plays a larger role in determining the outcomes of children with the disorder and a much lesser role in primary causation.

Throughout the century, investigators have repeatedly noted the similarities between symptoms of ADHD and those produced by lesions or injuries to the frontal lobes of the brain, particularly the prefrontal cortex. Both children and adults suffering injuries to the certain regions of prefrontal cortex demonstrate deficits in sustained attention, inhibition, working memory, the regulation of emotion and motivation, and the capacity to organize behavior across time.

Numerous other lines of evidence have been suggestive of a neurological origin to the disorder. Several studies have examined cerebral blood flow in ADHD and normal children. They have consistently shown decreased blood flow to the prefrontal regions of the brain and the striatum with which these regions are richly interconnected, particularly in its anterior portion. More recently, studies using positron emission tomography (PET) to assess cerebral glucose metabolism have found diminished metabolism in adults and adolescent females with ADHD although not in adolescent males with ADHD. However, significant correlations have been noted between diminished metabolic activity in the left anterior frontal region of the brain and severity of ADHD symptoms in adolescent males with ADHD. This demonstration of an association between the metabolic activity of certain brain regions and symptoms of ADHD is critical in demonstrating a connection between the findings pertaining to brain activation and the behavior comprising ADHD.

More detailed analysis of brain structures using high resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) devices has also suggested differences in some brain regions in those with ADHD. Initial studies that focused on reading-disabled children and used ADHD children as a contrast group examined the region of the left and right temporal lobes (the planum temporale). These regions are thought to be involved with auditory detection and analysis and, therefore, with certain subtypes of reading disabilities. For some time, researchers studying reading disorders have focused on these brain regions because of their connection to the rapid analysis of speech sounds. Children with ADHD and children with reading disabilities were found to have smaller right hemisphere plana temporale than the control group, while only the reading disabled children had a smaller left plana temporale. In another study, the corpus callosum was examined in subjects with ADHD. This structure assists with the interhemispheric transfer of information. Those with ADHD were found to have a smaller callosum, particularly in the area of the genu and splenium and that region just anterior to the splenium. An attempt to replicate this finding, however, failed to show any differences between ADHD and control children in the size or shape of the entire corpus callosum with the exception of the posterior portion of the splenium, which was significantly smaller in subjects with ADHD. Two additional studies examining the corpus callosum, however, documented smaller anterior (rostral) regions in children with ADHD; findings more consistent with prior studies of brain anatomy and functioning in children with ADHD. Most recently, two studies using larger samples of ADHD and normal children and MRI technology have both documented a smaller right prefrontal cortex and smaller right striatum and right basal ganglia (of which the striatum is a part) in ADHD children. Thus, despite some inconsistencies in findings across some of the earlier studies of brain morphology and functioning in ADHD, more recent studies are increasingly identifying the prefrontal regions of the brain and certain regions of the basal ganglia, such as the striatum, as probably being involved in the disorder.

None of these studies found evidence of frank brain damage in any of these structures in those with ADHD. This is consistent with past reviews of the literature conducted by Michael Rutter in 1983 suggesting that brain damage was related to less than 5% of those with hyperactivity. It is also consistent with more recent studies of twins suggesting that nonshared environmental factors, such as pre-, peri-, and postnatal neurological insults, among other factors, account for approximately 15 to 20% of the differences among individuals in the behavioral pattern associated with ADHD (inattention and hyperactive-impulsive behavior). Where differences in brain structures are found, they are probably the result of abnormalities that arise in brain development (embryology) within these particular regions, the causes of which are not known but may have to do with particular genes responsible for the construction of these brain regions.

No evidence exists to show that ADHD is the result of abnormal chromosomal structures (as in Down’s Syndrome), their fragility (as in Fragile X) or transmutation, or of extra chromosomal material (as in XXY syndrome). Children with such chromosomal abnormalities may show greater problems with attention, but such abnormalities are very uncommon in children with ADHD.

By far, the preponderance of research evidence suggests that ADHD is a trait that is highly hereditary in nature, making heredity one of the most well substantiated among the potential etiologies for ADHD. Multiple lines of research support such a conclusion. For years, researchers have noted the higher prevalence of psychopathology in the parents and other relatives of children with ADHD. In particular, higher rates of ADHD, conduct problems, substance abuse, and depression have been repeatedly observed in these studies. Research such as that by Joseph Biederman and colleagues at the Harvard Medical School (Massachusetts General Hospital) shows that between 10 and 35% of the immediate family members of children with ADHD are also likely to have the disorder, with the risk to siblings of the ADHD children being approximately 32%. More recent studies even suggest that if either parent has ADHD, the risk to offspring for the disorder may be as high as 50%.

Another line of evidence for genetic involvement in ADHD has emerged from studies of adopted children, which have found higher rates of hyperactivity in the biological parents of hyperactive children than in adoptive parents of hyperactive children. Biologically related and unrelated pairs of international adoptees also identified a strong genetic component to the behavioral dimension underlying ADHD.

Studies of twins conducted in the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom provide a third avenue of evidence for a genetic contribution to ADHD. In general, these studies suggest that if one twin is diagnosed with ADHD, the concordance for the disorder in the second twin may be as high as 81 to 92% in monozygotic twins but only 29 to 35% in dizygotic twins.

Quantitative genetic analyses of a large sample of families studied in Boston by Joseph Biederman and his colleagues suggest that a single gene may account for the expression of the disorder. The focus of research recently has been on the dopamine type 2 gene, given findings of its increased association with alcoholism, Tourette’s Syndrome, and ADHD. However, difficulties have arisen in the replication of this finding. More recent studies have implicated the dopamine transporter gene as being involved in ADHD as might the D4D repeator gene, which has shown an association with novelty-seeking and risk-taking personality traits. Clearly, research into the genetic mechanisms involved in the transmission of ADHD across generations will prove an exciting and fruitful area of research endeavor over the next decade as the human genome is mapped and better understood and as more sophisticated genetic technologies arising from this project come to be applied to the study of the genetics of ADHD.

Pre-, peri-, and postnatal complications, and malnutrition, diseases, trauma, and other neurologically compromising events may occur during the development of the nervous system before and after birth. Among these various biologically compromising events, several have been repeatedly linked to risks for inattention and hyperactive behavior. Elevated body lead burden has been shown to have a small but consistent and statistically significant relationship to the symptoms comprising ADHD. However, even at relatively high levels of lead, less than 38% of these children are rated as hyperactive on teacher rating scales, implying that most lead-poisoned children do not develop symptoms of ADHD. Other types of environmental toxins found to have some relationship to inattention and hyperactivity are prenatal exposure to alcohol and tobacco smoke.

The prevalence of ADHD, as reviewed by Peter Szatmari in 1992, using large epidemiological studies ranges from a low of 2 % to a high of 6.3 %, with most falling within the range of 4.2 to 6.3 %. Most studies have found similar prevalence rates in elementary school-aged children. Differences in prevalence rates are due in part to different methods of selecting these populations, to the criteria used to define a case of ADHD, and to the age range of the samples. For instance, prevalence rates may be 2 to 3% in females but 6 to 9% in males during the 6 to 12-year-old age period, but fall to 1 to 2% in females and 3 to 4.5 % in males by adolescence.

While the declining prevalence of ADHD with age may reflect real recovery from the disorder, it may also involve, at least in part, an artifact of methodology. This artifact results from the use of items in the diagnostic symptom lists across the life span that are were developed upon and chiefly applicable to young children. These items may reflect the underlying constructs of ADHD very well at younger ages but may be increasingly less appropriate for older age groups. This could create a situation where individuals remain impaired by ADHD characteristics as they mature, but outgrow the diagnostic symptom list for the disorder, resulting in an illusory decline in prevalence over development. Until more age-appropriate symptoms are studied for adolescent and adult populations, this issue remains unresolved.

Gender appears to play a significant role in determining prevalence of ADHD within a population. On average, males are between 2 and 6 times more likely than females to be diagnosed with ADHD in epidemiological samples of children, with the average being roughly 3:1. Within clinic-referred samples, the sex ratio can rise to 6:1 to 9:1, suggesting that males with ADHD are far more likely to be referred to clinics than females, especially if they have an associated oppositional or conduct disorder. It is unclear at this time why males should be more likely to have ADHD than females. This could result partly from an artifact of the relationship between male gender and more aggressive and oppositional behavior; such behavior is known to increase the probability of referral to mental health centers. Because such behavior is often associated with ADHD, clinic-referred males are also more likely to have ADHD. The greater preponderance of males might also, in part, be an artifact of applying a set of diagnostic criteria developed primarily on males to females. Using a predominantly male population to set diagnostic criteria as was done for the DSM-IV (see below) could create a higher threshold for diagnosis for females relative to other females than for males relative to other males. Such a circumstance argues for the eventual examination of whether separate diagnostic criteria (symptom thresholds) ought to be considered for each gender.

ADHD occurs across all socioeconomic levels. Where differences in prevalence rates are found across levels of social class, they may be artifacts of the source used to define the disorder or of the association of ADHD with other disorders known to be related to social class, such as aggression and conduct disorder. No one, however, has made the argument that the nature or qualitative aspects of ADHD differ across social classes.

Hyperactivity or ADHD is present in all countries studied so far, such as New Zealand, Japan, Italy, Germany, India, and Australia. While it may not receive the same diagnostic label in each country, the behavior pattern comprising the disorder appears to be present internationally. ADHD arises also in all ethnic groups studied so far.

Major follow-up studies of clinically referred hyperactive children have been ongoing during the last 25 years at five sites: Montreal, New York City, Iowa City, Los Angeles, and Milwaukee. Follow-up studies of children identified as hyperactive during epidemiological screenings of general populations have also been conducted in the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and England.

The onset of ADHD symptoms has been found to be generally in the preschool years, typically by age 3 or 4, and usually by entry into formal schooling. First to arise in many cases is the pattern of hyperactive-impulsive behavior and, in some cases, oppositional and aggressive conduct. Preschool-aged children with significant degrees of inattentive and hyperactive behavior who are difficult to manage for their parents or teachers and whose pattern of such behavior is persistent for at least a year or more are highly likely to have ADHD and to retain their symptoms into the elementary school years.

By the time ADHD children move into the age range of 6 to 12 years, the problems with hyperactive-impulsive behavior are increasingly associated with difficulties with the form of sustained attention referred to above as goal-directed persistence and distractibility (poor interference control). These symptoms of inattention appear to arise by the age of 5 to 7 years and may emerge out of the increasing difficulties ADHD children are having with self-regulation. The inattentiveness evident in children having ADD without Hyperactivity (Predominantly Inattentive Type of ADHD) may be of a qualitatively different form (focused or selective attention) and may not emerge or be impairing of the child’s school performance until even later, such as mid-to-late childhood.

When ADHD is present in clinic-referred children, the likelihood is that 50 to 80% will continue to have their disorder into adolescence. Although severity levels of symptoms are declining over development, this does not mean hyperactive children are necessarily outgrowing their disorder relative to normal children; like mental retardation, the disorder of ADHD is defined by a developmentally relative deficiency, rather than an absolute one, that persists in many children over time.

The persistence of ADHD symptoms across childhood as well as into early adolescence appears to be associated with the initial degree of hyperactive/impulsive behavior in childhood, the co-existence of conduct problems or oppositional/hostile behavior, poor family relations and conflict in parent-child interactions, as well as maternal depression. These predictors have also been associated with the development and persistence of oppositional and conduct disorder into adolescence.

The Montreal follow-up study of Weiss and Hechtman reported in 1993 that at least half of their subjects were still impaired by some symptoms of the disorder in adulthood. The New York City longitudinal study by Salvatore Mannuzza and Rachel Klein suggested that 18 to 30% of hyperactive children continue to have significant symptoms of ADHD into adulthood. Most recently, the Milwaukee follow-up study by Barkley and Fischer suggests that the source of information about the symptoms may be a significant factor in establishing the persistence of the disorder into adulthood. Less than 25 % of ADHD children reported having significant symptom levels of the disorder in adulthood when asked about themselves as young adults while their parents indicated that more than 60% of these subjects continued to have clinically significant degrees of the disorder as young adults. Until more studies report adult outcomes for ADHD children using clinical diagnostic criteria appropriate for adults and collecting information not only from the adult but from a parent or an immediate family member who knows them well, the true persistence of the disorder into adulthood will remain a matter of some controversy. At the very least, current research suggests it may be 30 to 50%, although the percentage may be higher among clinic-referred children followed to adulthood.

The most recent diagnostic criteria for ADHD are defined in the DSM-IV (1994). They stipulate that individuals have had their symptoms of ADHD for at least 6 months, that these symptoms exist to a degree that is developmentally deviant, and that they have developed by 7 years of age. From the Inattention item list, six of nine items must be endorsed as developmentally inappropriate. Likewise, from the Hyperactive-Impulsive item list, six of nine items must be endorsed as deviant. Depending upon whether criteria are met for either or both symptom lists will determine the type of ADHD that is to be diagnosed: Predominantly Inattentive, Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive, or Combined Type.

These diagnostic criteria are empirically derived and are the most rigorous ever available in the history of clinical diagnosis for this disorder. They were developed by a committee of some of the leading experts in the field, a literature review of research on ADHD, an informal survey of rating scales assessing the behavioral dimensions related to ADHD by the committee, and from statistical analyses of the results of a field trial of the items using a large sample of children from 10 different sites in North America.

Controversy continues over whether ADHD-Predominantly Inattentive Type represents a true subtype of ADHD. It is unclear if these children share a common attentional disturbance with the Combined Type and are distinguished simply by the relative absence of significant hyperactivity-impulsivity or whether they have a qualitatively different impairment in attention from that seen in the Combined Type. Several recent reviews of the literature have suggested that this is not in fact a true subtype but actually a separate, distinct disorder having a different attentional disturbance than the one present in ADHD-Combined Type. However, evidence for this subtype’s existence was at least strong enough to place it within the DSM-IV while awaiting more research on its course and treatment responsiveness to help clarify its status. The very limited research available to date suggests that Predominantly Inattentive ADHD children have more problems in the focused or selective component of attention, appear sluggish in their speed of information processing, and may have memory retrieval problems; in contrast, those with ADHD-Combined Type have more problems with persistence and distractibility as well as with poor inhibition.

The research criteria from the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) for Hyperkinetic Disorders closely resemble the DSM-IV in stressing two lists of symptoms related to inattention and overactivity and in requiring that pervasiveness across settings be demonstrated. The specific item contents, manner of presenting these symptoms lists within the home and school setting, requirement for office observation of the symptoms, and the earlier age of onset (age 6 years) clearly differs from the DSM-IV, as does the specification of a lower bound of IQ below which the diagnosis should not be given.

Social critics have charged that professionals have been too quick to label energetic and exuberant children as having this mental disorder and that educators also may be using these labels simply as an excuse for poor educational environments. This would imply that children who are hyperactive or are diagnosed with ADHD are actually normal but are being labelled as mentally disordered because of parent and teacher intolerance. If this were actually true, then we should find no differences of any cognitive, behavioral, or social significance between ADHD children and normal children. We should also find ADHD is not associated with any significant later risks in development for maladjustment within any domains of adaptive functioning, social, or school performance. Furthermore, research on potential etiologies for the disorder should also come up empty-handed. This is hardly the case. It should become clear from the totality of information on ADHD presented here and elsewhere in reviews such as those by Barkley in 1990 and Hinshaw in 1994 that those with ADHD have significant deficits in behavioral inhibition and associated executive functions that are critical for effective self-regulation, that these deficits are significantly associated with various biological factors, and particularly genetic and neurodevelopmental ones, and that ADHD symptoms and other associated disorders pose substantial risks for these individuals over the life span.

Future research needs to address the nature of the attentional problems in ADHD given that current research seriously questions whether these problems are actually within the realm of attention at all. Most studies of ADHD point to impairment within the motor, output, or motivational systems of the brain being most closely affiliated with ADHD rather than deficiencies in the sensory processing systems where attention has been traditionally thought to reside. Even the problem with sustained attention may represent a deficiency in a more complex form of goal-directed persistence that arises out of poor self-regulation rather than representing a disturbance in the more primitive form of sustained responding that is contingency shaped. Our understanding of the very nature of the disorder of ADHD is at stake in how research comes to resolve these issues.

Key to understanding ADHD is the notion that it is actually a disorder of behavioral performance and not one of skill; of how and when one’s intelligence comes to be applied in everyday effective adaptive functioning and not in that knowledge itself; of doing what one knows how to do rather than of knowing what to do. The concepts of time, timing, and timeliness are likely to prove increasingly crucial in deepening our understanding of ADHD. In particular, psychological time, how it is sensed, and how it is used in the crosstemporal organizing of complex, goal-directed behavior and in self-regulation may come to be a critical element in models of ADHD. Undoubtedly, research on brain function and structure is likely to further our understanding of the unique role of the prefrontal cortex and the midbrain structures with which it is closely associated in ADHD. But advances in theoretical models must also occur in order to better understand the nature and organization of the executive functions subserved by these brain regions and even the relationship of genetics, which builds these brain regions in embryological development, to ADHD and the deficits it produces in behavioral performance. And the current body of twin studies further suggests that while such genetic influences are important, there exists a lesser but still important role for unique (nonshared) environmental influences on the differences among individuals in symptoms of ADHD and its underlying behavioral traits. Some of these influences are no doubt social in nature while others are likely to be nongenetic pre-, peri-, and postnatal factors affecting brain development. Such studies, not only on the basic psychological nature of ADHD but also on its basic neuroanatomic and neurogenetic origins and the influence of unique social factors upon them, forebode further significant and exciting advances to come in the understanding and treatment of this fascinating developmental disorder.

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Can I pay someone to write a paper for me?

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- Will you write my paper for me? - Yes, we will.

What we offer:, let’s write a paper for you in no time, follow these 4 simple steps and solve you problem at once.

Provide details such as your topic, the number of pages, and extra requirements, and we’ll do a paper for you in no time!

Log in to your personal account to know the current status of your paper(s). You can also turn to our support team for the same purpose. Enjoy your life while we're working on your order.

As soon as we write the paper(s) for you, check it for correctness, and if everything is good to go, just download it and enjoy the results.

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Still hesitant just look: others have already used our services and were pleased with the results.

Thank you guys for the amazing work! I got an A, and my professor was impressed. You have done the impossible, and I will never forget your help! The best service ever!

I ordered my paper two weeks ago and received it on time. The quality is very good, much better than other companies provide. My support agent is a pro, fast and simple explanations. Thanks!

I am firmly convinced that you will never disappoint me because you haven’t done it before. Amazing approaches and solutions at perfect prices! Please continue working the way you do!

This service helped me focus on my job, and I will never forget the support I received. I’ve got a promotion in the end! Thanks a lot for everything you do for people like me!

I have to admit that searching for a reliable and professional service was a tough quest. Nevertheless, I am happy that I managed to find writepaperforme! Everything is much better than I expected!

The best bargain is just a few clicks away!

Get an original paper that doesn’t cost a fortune!

Still have questions?

Contact our support agents and let them help you!

Is it time to write a paper for you? Contact us and relish the highest academic performance!

Our professionals will do their best!

You’ll write my paper for me, won’t you? We certainly will!

Why would I ask you to write paper for me?

The undeniable benefits of our custom paper-writing service

Apart from a paper written in accordance with the highest standards, we provide a wide range of contributory advantages to make your life easier. Let’s take a closer look at them.

Who will write my paper when I order it?

It’s time to write my paper! What should I do?

Every paper we can write for you is expertly-researched, well-structured, and consistent. Take a look at some types of papers we can help you with:

Don’t hesitate and hire a writer to work on your paper now!

Questions our customers ask

Can someone write my paper for me.

Yes, we can. We have writers ready to cope with papers of any complexity. Just contact our specialists and let us help you.

Who can I pay to write a paper for me?

We will help you select a writer according to your needs. As soon as you hire our specialist, you’ll see a significant improvement in your grades.

Can I pay someone to write a paper for me?

Yes, you can. We have lots of professionals to choose from. We employ only well-qualified experts with vast experience in academic paper writing.

What website will write a paper for me?

WritePaperFor.me is the website you need. We offer a wide range of services to cover all your needs. Just place an order and provide instructions, and we will write a perfect paper for you.

Is it safe to use your paper writing service?

Our service is completely safe and anonymous. We don’t keep your personal and payment details and use the latest encryption systems to protect you.

What are you waiting for?

You are a couple of clicks away from tranquility at an affordable price!

IqEssay experts provide help with assignments of all academic levels and disciplines.

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The order process starts with the form, where you need to specify the type of assignment, academic level, and deadline. Please fill out form as more detailed and accurate as you can.

If we need more details about the work you need, we will contact you shortly

At this step, you can check the correctness of your order information, apply discount code, check the final price and proceed to pay.

Once you pay the invoice, we send your order to the relevant and experienced writer to start the process of writing

When the deadline comes, you will receive the completed assignment in your mailbox and to the personal account as well.

Check and review the paper you get and if you have any question - let us know, we appreciate any feedback you give us

our services

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Main Information About The Service

Our service consists of a group of experts in the field of academic writing, editing, and proofreading. We have been working for more than 6 years, and the majority of clients become our loyal friends. We provide students with writing help of any type, no matter what problem they have. Our goal is to ease your complicated student's life, full of deadlines and requirements. We have experts in each academic discipline, and they seek to help you with the assignment.

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Log in to your personal account to know the current status of your paper(s). You can also turn to our support team for the same purpose. Enjoy your life while we're working on your order.

As soon as we write the paper(s) for you, check it for correctness, and if everything is good to go, just download it and enjoy the results.

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Still hesitant just look: others have already used our services and were pleased with the results.

Thank you guys for the amazing work! I got an A, and my professor was impressed. You have done the impossible, and I will never forget your help! The best service ever!

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This service helped me focus on my job, and I will never forget the support I received. I’ve got a promotion in the end! Thanks a lot for everything you do for people like me!

I have to admit that searching for a reliable and professional service was a tough quest. Nevertheless, I am happy that I managed to find writepaperforme! Everything is much better than I expected!

The best bargain is just a few clicks away!

Get an original paper that doesn’t cost a fortune!

Still have questions?

Contact our support agents and let them help you!

Is it time to write a paper for you? Contact us and relish the highest academic performance!

Our professionals will do their best!

You’ll write my paper for me, won’t you? We certainly will!

Why would I ask you to write paper for me?

The undeniable benefits of our custom paper-writing service

Apart from a paper written in accordance with the highest standards, we provide a wide range of contributory advantages to make your life easier. Let’s take a closer look at them.

Who will write my paper when I order it?

It’s time to write my paper! What should I do?

Every paper we can write for you is expertly-researched, well-structured, and consistent. Take a look at some types of papers we can help you with:

Don’t hesitate and hire a writer to work on your paper now!

Questions our customers ask

Can someone write my paper for me.

Yes, we can. We have writers ready to cope with papers of any complexity. Just contact our specialists and let us help you.

Who can I pay to write a paper for me?

We will help you select a writer according to your needs. As soon as you hire our specialist, you’ll see a significant improvement in your grades.

Can I pay someone to write a paper for me?

Yes, you can. We have lots of professionals to choose from. We employ only well-qualified experts with vast experience in academic paper writing.

What website will write a paper for me?

WritePaperFor.me is the website you need. We offer a wide range of services to cover all your needs. Just place an order and provide instructions, and we will write a perfect paper for you.

Is it safe to use your paper writing service?

Our service is completely safe and anonymous. We don’t keep your personal and payment details and use the latest encryption systems to protect you.

What are you waiting for?

You are a couple of clicks away from tranquility at an affordable price!

- Will you write my paper for me? - Yes, we will.

What we offer:, let’s write a paper for you in no time, follow these 4 simple steps and solve you problem at once.

Provide details such as your topic, the number of pages, and extra requirements, and we’ll do a paper for you in no time!

Log in to your personal account to know the current status of your paper(s). You can also turn to our support team for the same purpose. Enjoy your life while we're working on your order.

As soon as we write the paper(s) for you, check it for correctness, and if everything is good to go, just download it and enjoy the results.

Our customers’ feedback

Still hesitant just look: others have already used our services and were pleased with the results.

Thank you guys for the amazing work! I got an A, and my professor was impressed. You have done the impossible, and I will never forget your help! The best service ever!

I ordered my paper two weeks ago and received it on time. The quality is very good, much better than other companies provide. My support agent is a pro, fast and simple explanations. Thanks!

I am firmly convinced that you will never disappoint me because you haven’t done it before. Amazing approaches and solutions at perfect prices! Please continue working the way you do!

This service helped me focus on my job, and I will never forget the support I received. I’ve got a promotion in the end! Thanks a lot for everything you do for people like me!

I have to admit that searching for a reliable and professional service was a tough quest. Nevertheless, I am happy that I managed to find writepaperforme! Everything is much better than I expected!

The best bargain is just a few clicks away!

Get an original paper that doesn’t cost a fortune!

Still have questions?

Contact our support agents and let them help you!

Is it time to write a paper for you? Contact us and relish the highest academic performance!

Our professionals will do their best!

You’ll write my paper for me, won’t you? We certainly will!

Why would I ask you to write paper for me?

The undeniable benefits of our custom paper-writing service

Apart from a paper written in accordance with the highest standards, we provide a wide range of contributory advantages to make your life easier. Let’s take a closer look at them.

Who will write my paper when I order it?

It’s time to write my paper! What should I do?

Every paper we can write for you is expertly-researched, well-structured, and consistent. Take a look at some types of papers we can help you with:

Don’t hesitate and hire a writer to work on your paper now!

Questions our customers ask

Can someone write my paper for me.

Yes, we can. We have writers ready to cope with papers of any complexity. Just contact our specialists and let us help you.

Who can I pay to write a paper for me?

We will help you select a writer according to your needs. As soon as you hire our specialist, you’ll see a significant improvement in your grades.

Can I pay someone to write a paper for me?

Yes, you can. We have lots of professionals to choose from. We employ only well-qualified experts with vast experience in academic paper writing.

What website will write a paper for me?

WritePaperFor.me is the website you need. We offer a wide range of services to cover all your needs. Just place an order and provide instructions, and we will write a perfect paper for you.

Is it safe to use your paper writing service?

Our service is completely safe and anonymous. We don’t keep your personal and payment details and use the latest encryption systems to protect you.

What are you waiting for?

You are a couple of clicks away from tranquility at an affordable price!

- Will you write my paper for me? - Yes, we will.

What we offer:, let’s write a paper for you in no time, follow these 4 simple steps and solve you problem at once.

Provide details such as your topic, the number of pages, and extra requirements, and we’ll do a paper for you in no time!

Log in to your personal account to know the current status of your paper(s). You can also turn to our support team for the same purpose. Enjoy your life while we're working on your order.

As soon as we write the paper(s) for you, check it for correctness, and if everything is good to go, just download it and enjoy the results.

Our customers’ feedback

Still hesitant just look: others have already used our services and were pleased with the results.

Thank you guys for the amazing work! I got an A, and my professor was impressed. You have done the impossible, and I will never forget your help! The best service ever!

I ordered my paper two weeks ago and received it on time. The quality is very good, much better than other companies provide. My support agent is a pro, fast and simple explanations. Thanks!

I am firmly convinced that you will never disappoint me because you haven’t done it before. Amazing approaches and solutions at perfect prices! Please continue working the way you do!

This service helped me focus on my job, and I will never forget the support I received. I’ve got a promotion in the end! Thanks a lot for everything you do for people like me!

I have to admit that searching for a reliable and professional service was a tough quest. Nevertheless, I am happy that I managed to find writepaperforme! Everything is much better than I expected!

The best bargain is just a few clicks away!

Get an original paper that doesn’t cost a fortune!

Still have questions?

Contact our support agents and let them help you!

Is it time to write a paper for you? Contact us and relish the highest academic performance!

Our professionals will do their best!

You’ll write my paper for me, won’t you? We certainly will!

Why would I ask you to write paper for me?

The undeniable benefits of our custom paper-writing service

Apart from a paper written in accordance with the highest standards, we provide a wide range of contributory advantages to make your life easier. Let’s take a closer look at them.

Who will write my paper when I order it?

It’s time to write my paper! What should I do?

Every paper we can write for you is expertly-researched, well-structured, and consistent. Take a look at some types of papers we can help you with:

Don’t hesitate and hire a writer to work on your paper now!

Questions our customers ask

Can someone write my paper for me.

Yes, we can. We have writers ready to cope with papers of any complexity. Just contact our specialists and let us help you.

Who can I pay to write a paper for me?

We will help you select a writer according to your needs. As soon as you hire our specialist, you’ll see a significant improvement in your grades.

Can I pay someone to write a paper for me?

Yes, you can. We have lots of professionals to choose from. We employ only well-qualified experts with vast experience in academic paper writing.

What website will write a paper for me?

WritePaperFor.me is the website you need. We offer a wide range of services to cover all your needs. Just place an order and provide instructions, and we will write a perfect paper for you.

Is it safe to use your paper writing service?

Our service is completely safe and anonymous. We don’t keep your personal and payment details and use the latest encryption systems to protect you.

What are you waiting for?

You are a couple of clicks away from tranquility at an affordable price!

- Will you write my paper for me? - Yes, we will.

What we offer:, let’s write a paper for you in no time, follow these 4 simple steps and solve you problem at once.

Provide details such as your topic, the number of pages, and extra requirements, and we’ll do a paper for you in no time!

Log in to your personal account to know the current status of your paper(s). You can also turn to our support team for the same purpose. Enjoy your life while we're working on your order.

As soon as we write the paper(s) for you, check it for correctness, and if everything is good to go, just download it and enjoy the results.

Our customers’ feedback

Still hesitant just look: others have already used our services and were pleased with the results.

Thank you guys for the amazing work! I got an A, and my professor was impressed. You have done the impossible, and I will never forget your help! The best service ever!

I ordered my paper two weeks ago and received it on time. The quality is very good, much better than other companies provide. My support agent is a pro, fast and simple explanations. Thanks!

I am firmly convinced that you will never disappoint me because you haven’t done it before. Amazing approaches and solutions at perfect prices! Please continue working the way you do!

This service helped me focus on my job, and I will never forget the support I received. I’ve got a promotion in the end! Thanks a lot for everything you do for people like me!

I have to admit that searching for a reliable and professional service was a tough quest. Nevertheless, I am happy that I managed to find writepaperforme! Everything is much better than I expected!

The best bargain is just a few clicks away!

Get an original paper that doesn’t cost a fortune!

Still have questions?

Contact our support agents and let them help you!

Is it time to write a paper for you? Contact us and relish the highest academic performance!

Our professionals will do their best!

You’ll write my paper for me, won’t you? We certainly will!

Why would I ask you to write paper for me?

The undeniable benefits of our custom paper-writing service

Apart from a paper written in accordance with the highest standards, we provide a wide range of contributory advantages to make your life easier. Let’s take a closer look at them.

Who will write my paper when I order it?

It’s time to write my paper! What should I do?

Every paper we can write for you is expertly-researched, well-structured, and consistent. Take a look at some types of papers we can help you with:

Don’t hesitate and hire a writer to work on your paper now!

Questions our customers ask

Can someone write my paper for me.

Yes, we can. We have writers ready to cope with papers of any complexity. Just contact our specialists and let us help you.

Who can I pay to write a paper for me?

We will help you select a writer according to your needs. As soon as you hire our specialist, you’ll see a significant improvement in your grades.

Can I pay someone to write a paper for me?

Yes, you can. We have lots of professionals to choose from. We employ only well-qualified experts with vast experience in academic paper writing.

What website will write a paper for me?

WritePaperFor.me is the website you need. We offer a wide range of services to cover all your needs. Just place an order and provide instructions, and we will write a perfect paper for you.

Is it safe to use your paper writing service?

Our service is completely safe and anonymous. We don’t keep your personal and payment details and use the latest encryption systems to protect you.

What are you waiting for?

You are a couple of clicks away from tranquility at an affordable price!

IMAGES

😂 Examples of bibliography in research paper. Sample Bibliography or Works Cited in MLA Style
001 Research Paper Annotated Bibliography Template Online ~ Museumlegs
001 Research Paper Annotated Bibliography Template Online ~ Museumlegs
How+to+write+a+Bibliography-page-0.JPG (1237×1600)
👍 Apa annotated bibliography. Annotated Bibliography Example Guide In Three Most Popular Styles
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY APSA EXAMPLE

VIDEO

Bibliography with example
Search Strategies for your Annotated Bibliography
Export your BibTeX file to Overleaf
BIBLIOGRAPHY
#Howtocitereferences #reference#MLA8thedition #Unit5ofResearchMethods #workscited #bibliography
Multiple Bibliographies: LaTeX Make Simple

COMMENTS

Common Research Paper Bibliography Formats
Step 1: Create a Preliminary Bibliography While you are doing your research and gathering data for your research paper, it can be helpful to create preliminary bibliography. Not only will this take the work out for you in the end, but it can help you to organize your thoughts as well.
Bibliography Definition and Examples
Bibliography Examples for Books When quoting a book, the book itself is the title of the container. For example: Smith, John Jacob Jingleheimer. Wu Xia and the Art of Scooter Maintenance, Springer, 2003. Should the source have more than one author, your citation should appear as follows: Smith, John Jacob Jingleheimer, and Cindy Lu.
How to Write a Bibliography (MLA, APA Examples)
How to write a bibliography step-by-step (with examples) Books: General Format: Author (last name first). Title of the book. Publisher, Date of publication. EXAMPLES: MLA Style: Sibley, David Allen. What It's Like to Be a Bird. From Flying to Nesting, Eating to Singing, What Birds Are Doing, and Why. Alfred A. Knopf, 2020.
Bibliography Examples for Students
Bibliography Examples In MLA, APA and Chicago When it comes to examples of bibliographies, it can get confusing. This is because the word "bibliography" can have a double meaning when it comes to writing styles. "Bibliography" can be a catch-all word to mean all source lists in all writing styles.
How to Write a Bibliography, With Examples
A bibliography is the list of sources a work's author used to create the work. What are the different kinds of bibliographies? There are many different kinds of bibliographies. These include: Enumerative bibliographies Annotated bibliographies Analytical bibliographies How do you write a bibliography for different style guides?
Preliminary Bibliography Examples
The source list preliminary bibliography offers a list of your primary and secondary sources that you are going to use. For example, in MLA style, it might look something like: Preliminary Bibliography Jennifer Betts Topic: Hunger Games Context: Dystopian Fiction Primary Sources: Collins, Suzanne. The Hunger Games. New York, Scholastic Press, 2008.
How to Write a Bibliography for a Research Paper
Here is an example of a bibliography for a Web site: Format: Author."Document Title." Publication or Web site title. Date of publication. Date of access. Example: Dodman, Dr. Nicholas. "Dog-Human Communication." Pet Place. 10 November 2006. 23 January 2014 < http://www.petplace.com/dogs/dog-human-communication-2/page1.aspx >
Bibliography
Bibliography - Examples, PDF Writing a research paper or a thesis, you may encounter some references or some links below or at the very end of the page. We call these annotated bibliographies, or just bibliographies. Bibliography 1. Bibliography Sample 2. Bibliography Format 3. MLA Citation Style In-Text Citations and Bibliography 1.
Annotated Bibliography Samples
In the sample annotation above, the writer includes three paragraphs: a summary, an evaluation of the text, and a reflection on its applicability to his/her own research, respectively. For information on formatting MLA citations, see our MLA 9th Edition (2021) Formatting and Style Guide. Sample APA Annotation Ehrenreich, B. (2001).
How To Cite a Research Paper: Citation Styles Guide
For the reference lists located at the end of the research paper, you need to cite four major elements: Author: includes the individual author names format and group author names format Date: includes the date format and how to include retrieval dates Title: includes the title format and how to include bracketed descriptions
What Is an Annotated Bibliography?
An example of an annotated source is shown below: Table of contents Annotated bibliography format: APA, MLA, Chicago How to write an annotated bibliography Descriptive annotation example Evaluative annotation example Reflective annotation example Finding sources for your annotated bibliography
ADHD Research Paper
ADHD Research Paper. This sample ADHD research paper features: 8200 words (approx. 27 pages), an outline, and a bibliography with 14 sources. Browse other research paper examples for more inspiration. If you need a thorough research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help.
PDF Annotated Bibliography Examples
bibliography of sources concerning instructional patterns for research libraries. Written for an academic audience, the author provides information on how such a bibliography can be used. Although it does not provide information on how to compile an annotated bibliography, the book proves a good source for examples.
Example Of Bibliography Of Research Paper
Example Of Bibliography Of Research Paper Property Type Residential All Types Bathrooms 2 Laura V. Svendsen #9 in Global Rating Submit Level: College, University, High School, Master's, Undergraduate, PHD
Example Of Bibliography Research Paper
Example Of Bibliography Research Paper: is a "rare breed" among custom essay writing services today. All the papers delivers are completely original as we check every single work for plagiarism via advanced plagiarism detection software. As a double check of the paper originality, you are free to order a full plagiarism PDF report while ...
Examples Of Bibliography In A Research Paper
Examples Of Bibliography In A Research Paper - Level: College, High School, University, Master's, PHD, Undergraduate. 4.8/5. Toggle navigation. Info Pages. 760 . Finished Papers. Examples Of Bibliography In A Research Paper: 100% Success rate ...
Students Writing: Example of bibliography on research paper FREE
A marked paper research on example of bibliography preference for sentence-initial position. Comparing and contrasting) in academic books, concentrate instead on expressing cause and effect. Using this as a result, no one perfect approach to representation is written commonly do not share its methodological characteristics.
Example Of A Bibliography For A Research Paper
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Example Of Bibliography In A Research Paper
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Sample Bibliography Research Paper
Sample Bibliography Research Paper, How To Structure An Essay Apa, Narrative Essay On A Moment Of Success, A Trifle From Real Life Essay, Research Paper Topics 5th Grade, Soil Conservation Towards Healthy And Better Environment Essay In Hindi, Case Studies Law School
Example Of Bibliography In A Research Paper
Secondly, all the writers have work experience of more than 5 years in this domain of academic writing. They are responsible for. Omitting any sign of plagiarism. Formatting the draft. Delivering order before the allocated deadline. Order Now. Level: College, University, High School, Master's, PHD, Undergraduate. 100% Success rate.